Sociology with Shekhar

2023-04-05 22:32:08 #Equality
#SocialStratification

"Men are born free and equal but everywhere they are in chains” - J.J. Rousseau. The quest for equality and the struggle against inequality and injustice continue even today.

Broadly the term equality refers to “the state of being equal in some respect. Equality or social equality refers to a condition in which members of a group or society have equal access to, wealth, prestige, or power.

Liberal democracy assumes that Equality means equality between individuals as citizens. Here, Equality includes constitutional rights, that is, the fundamental Rights, the right to hold political office, the right to exercise all civic rights, etc.

However; liberal democratic concern with individual equality doesn't give prominence to equality through fair distribution of wealth and income. Infact unequal distribution of wealth and unchecked concentration of wealth undermines Equality because the holders of material wealth always have advantage over those who do not hold them, afterall it cannot be denied that material resources affect life chances .. How? Khud socho yaar.... Better education+ Better health... Comparatively, better human capital banega woh vyakti... Market position mein hamesha advantage hoga... Health hazards ko ya inflation jaise situation ko easily handle kar payega... So better life chances... Apart from it, living standard bhi better hoga .

Irony is that we are committed to be a welfare state but egalitarian objective of welfare still remains unfulfilled. There have been attempts to provide various social services to the needy people particularly in the fields of education, housing, health care, income maintenance, etc. yet inequalities have persisted and in some cases, actually increased. It is surprising to note that the western experience with the liberal democracies has revealed that the egalitarian objectives of welfare are not acceptable to the majority. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-04-04 21:45:57 #LookingGlassSelf
#CHCooley

Similar to Mead Cooley believed that we form our self-images through interaction with other people. He was particularly interested in how significant others shape us as individuals. A Significant Other is someone whose opinions matter to us and who is in a position to influence our thinking, especially about ourselves. A significant other can be anyone, such as a parent, sibling, spouse, or best friend.

The Looking-Glass Self refers to a self-image that is based on how we think others see us.

He saw development of this self as a three stage process.

Step 1
We imagine that a significant other perceives us in a certain way.
Step 2
We imagine that he or she makes a judgment about us based on that perception.
Step 3
We form a self-image based on how we think our significant other sees us. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-04-02 04:07:02 #Mead
#SocialBehaviorism

George Herbert Mead believed that people develop self-images through interactions with other people. He argued that the Self, which is the part of a person’s personality consisting of self-awareness and self-image, is a product of social experience.

Mead rejected Freud’s notion that personality is determined partly by biological drives. Mead argued that the Self develops solely through Social Experience. Mead believes that humans interact through symbols therefore, it is right to say that Social Experience consists of exchange of symbols.

Individual understands the perspective of other in the interaction process by imagining the situation from that other's perspective. Mead believed that social experience depends on our seeing ourselves as others do. He calls this, “taking the role of the other.” He argues that this process of understanding the role of other results in self awareness.

He adds that there is 2 parts of self. Active “I” self and an Objective “me” self. He calls "I" as pure form of self but "Me" as social self. "I" initiates action and "Me" continues, interrupts or changes action on basis of how other respond (Social Awareness).

Mead believed that the key to self-development is understanding the role of the other. He also outlined steps in the process of development from birth to adulthood. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-03-31 20:19:29 #TheoryofSocialization
#Psychologyspecial
#SigmundFreud
#TheoryOfPersonalityDevelopment

We all know that Socialization is the process in which an learns about norms, values and standards of a social system and whereby an individual's standards, skills, motives, attitudes, and behaviors are shaped to conform to those expected standards regarded as desirable and appropriate for performing a role in society. This brings us to interesting process of development of self, or in simple words the process of children of our society learning about themselves and about their society.

Different researchers have constructed different theories about how these. G.H. Mead's theory of #SocialBehaviorism which is mentioned in the book Mind, Self and Society is one such theory. C.H. Cooley's #LookingGlassSelf which explains construction of self image on basis of how one think's that one is perceived by others is another famous theory in Sociology.

But we will look into these theories in upcoming days. Today I bring u a similar theory from a famous Psychologist called Sigmund Freud. His theory is famously known as 'Theory of Personality Development'. I know it raises many eyebrows because people expect me to share Sociology related relevant information on this channel but then, Freud hai...#Chaltahai! Padh lena... Kahin na kahin kaam aa hi jayega.

Freud's Theory:
Freud believed that believed that basic biological instincts combined with societal factors shape personalities. Freud argues that mind consists of three parts that must interact properly for a person to function well in society. If any one of the three parts becomes dominant, personal and social problems may result. The three parts are the id, the superego, and the ego.

Id: According to Freud, the 'Id' develops first. A newborn’s mind consists only of the 'Id', which is responsible for the satisfaction of physical desires. The Id represents a human being’s most primitive desires, and a person ruled only by the Id would do everything strictly for his or her own pleasure, breaking societal norms in the process and risking punishment.

Superego: As children move from infancy into childhood, their minds develop a superego, or conscience, which encourages conformity to societal norms and values. Someone with a hyperactive superego would be confined within a too-rigid system of rules, which would inhibit his or her ability to live normally.

Ego: A healthy mind also consists of the ego, or the part of the mind that resolves the conflicts between the id and the superego. Normally, the ego balances the desires of the id and superego, but when it fails, a person may have difficulty making decisions, which can lead to behavioral problems. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-03-29 18:35:49 #Anomie theory(#Merton)
#Deviance Theory

The basic idea of Robert K. Merton’s anomie theory is that most people strive to achieve culturally recognized goals. A state of anomie develops when access to these goals is blocked to entire groups of people or individuals. The institutionalised means do not take individuals to these goals. The result is a deviant behaviour characterized by rebellion, retreat, ritualism, innovation, and/or conformity.

Merton refines Durkheim’s remarks by describing the missing social rules that lead to anomie and linking them to the aspect of the value-medium discrepancy. Merton argues that anomic conditions are no longer seen in the gap of norms to regulate people, but in the discrepancy between goals and means.

Merton adds that this discrepancy between goals and means varies from class to class, but is possible in all strata. The discrepancy results in a disorientation of the individual and causes psychological stress as well as social conflicts.

In order to be able to cope with this pressure, individual recourse is made to one of the following 5 behavioural patterns
Conformity
Acceptance of cultural goals and adaptation to social change
Innovation
Acceptance of cultural goals, non-recognition of legal means to achieve the goals.
Ritualism
Lowering / abandoning the cultural goals and maintaining legal means to achieve them.
Retreatism
Rejection of cultural goals and legal means
Rebellion
Combating the objectives and the means to change social structures.

Merton’s anomie theory refers to the much quoted connection between social and criminal policy.

Since crime in the form of innovation (or even retreat and rebellion) is the result of social-structural inequalities, it must be the task of criminal policy to resolve them. Economically weaker persons must be allowed to advance to higher social strata or at least be helped to achieve their goals appropriately.

The lesser the society is characterised by social inequality, the fewer people will become anomic. The goal must therefore be a genuine social and welfare state in which it is possible for everyone to achieve cultural goals by legitimate means. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-03-28 05:59:47 Merton clearly mentions that every item does not necessarily have functions or dysfunctions for the whole society. Something might be functional for one group and dysfunctional for another group or sub-system. For example, during an India-pakistan Cricket match in a world cup, if an organisation is playing the live streaming of the cricket match on TV screens at the work place, may have function that it may ensure that attendance does not lowers significantly on that day and also increases solidarity among workers on the occassion but on the other hand it may breed and promote inefficiency in the work place which is dysfunctional for the employers. This is why Merton argues that it is it is necessary to be particularly specific about the unit
for which one wants to study the functional consequences of an item. So a sociologist should be absolutely clear whether he or she is studying the functional consequences of a given item for the whole society or only for
a sub-group.

Merton further makes a point that a functional analyst should not assume that her or his task is to focus only on the static aspects of social structure and neglect the study of structural change in society. Merton believes that a functional analyst should be equally concerned about social change.

Merton argues that nothing is
indispensable; so also one might add that nothing is static either. Functional
alternatives are possible. Secondly, a functional analyst should know that
not everything is functional; there are many social and cultural items, which
have dysfunctional consequences. Dysfunctions, according to Merton, imply
the concept of strain, stress and tension on the structural level and, therefore,
provide an analytical approach to the study of dynamics and change.

Merton says that functional analysis has no intrinsic commitment to any ideological position. Merton adds that it all depends on how you do your analysis and how you want to use it. For instance, if you concentrate solely on positive functional consequences, it leads towards an ultra-conservative ideology. But, on the other hand, if you concentrate solely on dysfunctional consequences, it
leads you towards an ultra-radical Utopia, because you are excessively critical of all the institutions present in your society.

Taking example of caste, as a sociologist, if you see only
the functional consequences of caste, ‘how caste restricts competition and,
therefore, maintains order or how caste enables one to choose one’s swadharma and therefore reduces the possibility of career anxiety or identity
confusion, you are indeed adopting an ultra-conservative ideology. But once you begin to see the dysfunctions of caste, you can no longer be
accused of conservatism. Because by seeing the dysfunctions you are
essentially pleading for change. That’s why, Merton argues, functional analysis has no intrinsic commitment to any ideological position. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-03-28 05:59:46 #Merton's #structural-Functionalism
#Paradigmoffunctionalanalysis.

Merton defines function as 'those observed consequences which make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system' and dysfunctions as 'those observed consequences which lessen the adaptation or adjustment of the system'. I.e. functions are those activities that are conducive to the maintenance of social life; dysfunctions are those activities that are not conducive to the maintenance of social life. Robert Merton developed structural functionalism by distinguishing between manifest (clear) and latent (hidden) functions.

Manifest functions are those objective consequences contributing to the adjustment or adaptation of the system, which are intended and recognised by participants in the system; latent functions being those which are neither intended nor recognised. That is, manifest functions are those that can be said to be clearly identifiable as conducive to social life and latent functions are those that have, as their implicit purpose, the maintenance of social life in the future. The converse is the case for dysfunction. Eg. Educating children is manifest function of school. This is manifest function of school; However; In doing so it also provides certain entertainment. This is latent function.

Merton criticizes/ highlights the limitations of postulates of functional analysis propounded by Malinowski and Radcliffe Brown. He proposes his own paradigm of functional analysis for theory building in sociology.

This paradigm is intended to provide a more substantial guide to functional analysis. His main purpose in formulating the paradigm can be described as pragmatic and includes an attempt to codify the basic steps in a fruitful functionalist analysis.

--> Merton argued that there shall be specification of minimum basic concepts for analysing social phenomena.
--> Sociologists should formulate the condition for functional analysis and clarify its scientific, political and ideological implications.

Merton argued that without a paradigm, it is difficult to properly codify atheory. The paradigm brings out into open the array of assumptions,
concepts and basic propositions employed in a sociological analysis. Itreduces the possibility of randomness and arbitrariness in sociological
research. A paradigm for functional analysis therefore helps to make clear how to
conduct functional analysis, what to study, what to emphasise upon and
how to locate one’s analysis.

A sociologist should know the nature of the sociological data that canbe subjected to functional analysis. Merton clarifies that object of analysis should represent a
standardised, patterned item such as social roles, institutional patterns, social
processes, cultural patterns, culturally patterned emotions, social norms,
group organisation, social structure, devices for social control, etc. In other words, something that is a regular practice can be included for
functional analysis. For example, you can include cricket as well asmarriage, a religious rite as well as the coercive machinery of the state.This is because all of the above are standardised social items.

Merton clearly also makes his argument that a sociologist should not include a particular way of behaving, thinking or an unusual characteristic (which he calls idiosyncracy) or peculiarities of a single individual for functional analysis.

Merton talks about both functional as well as dysfunctional consequences should be observed and as a sociologist a sociologist, one's task is to see the net balance of the aggregate of consequences.

Imagine yourself conducting functional analysis of Social media. Its positive
functions are obvious; it brings the world closer and informs you of the happenings on this planet. But its dysfunctions too have to be seen. It breeds consumerism and tends to stimulate violence through spreading fake news and hate. So as a sociologist your task is to balance the functions and the dysfunctions of social media and then arrive, at a reasonable conclusion. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-03-26 23:30:53 I found this on internet. Just to mention that this image is not my creation. I found it lucid, precise and simple to understand, hence sharing it with u. Ochish/sharhlash

2023-03-26 23:29:18 Ochish/sharhlash

2023-03-26 23:21:44 #R.K.Merton's #Functionalism

One of the major criticism that functionalism faces is  that functionalism is an inherently conservative perspective devoted to preserving the status Quo. Merton believed that this criticism stood because functionalists like Malinowski and Brown have adopted these postulates that are indefensible and unnecessary to the functional orientation. Merton balances this status quoist orientation of traditional functionalism by introducing the concept of 'DYSFUNCTIONS' and takes sociological analysis focusing beyond 'FUNCTIONS'.

Merton argued that functions contribute to the adjustment of the system, dysfunctions are those consequences that lead to instability and ultimately change. Merton understood that, institutional structures and cultural elements are interrelated and mutually supporting, and thus he did assert that the dominant orientation of sociocultural systems is to stability. But he highlights that if we look at history we may find that all major social structures have in due course been cumulatively modified or abruptly terminated. They have not been eternally fixed or Static rather they do change with time and space.

Merton believed that Social structure can be analyzed in terms of both stability as well as change. Through concept of dysfunction, allows functional approach to focus on change. The concept of dysfunction is based on tension, strain, or contradictions within components of socio-cultural systems. Dysfunctional elements create pressures for change within the system. Mechanism of Integration and Latency keeps these strain in check or minimize change of the social structure but these mechanisms are not always effective, and the accumulation of stress results into conflict, often causing systemic change. Therefore, Merton believes that functional analysis should also focus on identifying these dysfunctions and examining how they are contained, reduced or how they cause systemic and fundamental change.

Merton advocates that Functions are those observed consequences which make for the adaptation or adjustment of a given system; and dysfunctions, are those observed consequences which lessens adaptation or adjustment of the system.

Merton further talks about Manifest and Latent which in a very simple manner can be understood by following image. Ochish/sharhlash